Women´s Health Breast Cancer Essay - 1127 Words

Breast Cancer and Women’s Health Breast Cancer is defined as â€Å"a group of solid tumor malignancies arising in the tissues of the breast† (Sarah Crawford, Richard Alder, 2013) in human and other mammals. It can happen to both men and women. For women, breast cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer death. According to National Cancer Institute, in the United States, the 2014 estimated new cases and deaths of female from breast cancer are 232,670 and 40,000, respectively. For male, it’s 430 deaths out of 2,360 new cases. From these numbers, we can see that women in the U.S. are greatly affected by breast cancer, thus, it’s not difficult to imagine the impact on a worldwide level. Although these numbers look frightening, people can†¦show more content†¦For example, if a women’s mother or sister has breast cancer, she may be at higher risk of getting the disease. Mutations in BRCA1 and BRCA2 are leading factors of breast cancers in women; it will actually promote the develop ment of cancer cells. There are other genetic reasons that may increase the risk of breast cancer. For example, according to a research done by some Chinese scholars, â€Å"genetic variants in the vicinity of pre-miR-101-2 were associated with breast cancer risk in the Chinese population.† However, most breast cancer patients do not have family history of this disease. For them, all of the following factors may differently impact the risk of exposure to breast cancer: weight, menstruation age, menopause age, first childbirth age and etc. According to our textbook, early menstruation, later menopause, overweight and having child after age of 30 will increase the risk of getting breast cancer. Other risk factors like medical conditions may also impact the risk of breast cancer. Symptoms and Stages It’s important to learn the symptoms of breast cancer so that we can treat it earlier. Typically, people may found a lump that feels different from other breast tissues. Other noticeable breasts symptoms include shape, size, skin color, texture, itching, pain, swelling, increased sensitivity and etc. The stages of breast cancer depend on tumor size and when it spreads to the other parts of body. In stage 0, also called the situ stage, the tumor is not largeShow MoreRelatedHow do cultural differences affect breast cancer prevalence, prevention, and treatment in African-American, Hispanic/Latina, and Caucasian women livin883 Words   |  4 Pagesdo cultural differences affect breast cancer prevalence, prevention, and treatment in African-American, Hispanic/Latina, and Caucasian women living in the United States? Over the past decade breast cancer has become one of the most predominant diseases in the United States. 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Therefore, breast cancer is caused by uncontrolled growth of cancerous cells in the breasts. Breast cancer has been noted in history for thousands of years. The ancient Greeks first discovered the disease about 3,500 years ago (Mandal, 2013)

Resting Metabolic Rate And Progressive Submaximal Exercise...

EXERCISE PHYSIOLOGY LAB APK4110L - Section # 008 Carissa Insinga 9/22/16 LAB REPORT #2 Resting Metabolic Rate Progressive Submaximal Exercise Test Mike Haischer Introduction In these experiments we talked about the Resting Metabolic Rate and Progressive Submaximal Exercise Testing to determine a subjects’ carbon dioxide production to oxygen consumption. This was done by having examples provided for us to calculate the RMR by using a formula, (X ml/kg/min x weight in kg) / 1000 mL= # L/min, to determine the number of calories burned at rest, as well having subjects perform the standardized treadmill test for 12-15 minutes for the Progressive Submaximal Exercise Testing. Resting Metabolic Rate is the energy expenditure at rest in well rested, fasted state in a supine position. For an accurate reading of RMR, one should not eat or drink within 6 hours before testing, refrain from any physical activity 12 hours prior, and no caffeine/tobacco/medication consumption beforehand. The purpose of finding RMR is to find the number of kilocalories that are required each day. RMR can be depend on factors such as body composition, genetics, gender, and age. A Progressive Submaximal Exercise Test is a test that estimates VO2 max, oxygen consumption, and is performed by gradually increasing the intensity of exercise. This test helps predict the maximal aerobic capacity of an individual as well as measuring the heart rate and VO2 max. WhileShow MoreRelatedSports Performance Evaluation Ioan Stoian National Institute Of Sports Medicine1378 Words   |  6 PagesExercise is termed as an activity requiring physical effort to improve health and fitness. Scientists can use fitness as a measure to compare one person to another (Haskel). Fitness tests can be conducted in a field or lab based setting (Point-of-care athlete testing, a new approach of sport performance evaluation Ioan Stoian National Institute of Sports Medicine, Bucharest, Romania). Fitness as a standard must be quantified to be able to compare individuals (Safrit). Predicting VO2Max can be doneRead MoreEffects of Vigorous and Moderate Exercise on Health-Related Outcomes10786 Words   |  43 Pagesï » ¿Effects of vigorous and moderate exercise on health-related outcomes Introduction In many developed countries, physical inactivity is becoming a public health problem as a result of fewer numbers of people embracing physical activity(Wardle and Steptoe, 2003). Population-based studies that have been conducted in USA and other developed countries in Europe suggest that the education level of individuals directly affects their physical activity (Trost et al., 2002). Thus those with lower levels

Neuron and Chemical Synapse Free Essays

Nervous System II: Anatomy Review 1. The somatic nervous system stimulates ____________ muscle. The autonomic nervous system stimulates ___________ muscle, ____________ muscle, and ___________. We will write a custom essay sample on Neuron and Chemical Synapse or any similar topic only for you Order Now 2. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) consists of two divisions, each innervating the effector organs. The sympathetic nervous system (SNS) generally speeds up everything except digestion. The parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) generally slows down everything but digestion. Signals from the SNS cause the heart rate to _________, while signals from the PNS cause the heart rate to ___________. Signals from the SNS cause smooth muscles of the intestine to _________ contractions, while signals from the PNS cause these muscles to _________ contractions. Signals from the SNS also cause the adrenal gland to _________ epinephrine and norepinephrine. 3. Neurons can excite or inhibit another neuron. Exciting another neuron will increase the chances of a/an ___________________ in the second neuron. Inhibiting another neuron will make the chances of a/an __________________ less likely. 4. Axons from one neuron can synapse with the dendrites or soma of another axon. These synapses are called ______________________ (on dendrites) and _________________________ (on soma). They carry input signals to the other neuron. Axons from one neuron can synapse with the axon terminal of another neuron. These synapses are called ________________________, and they regulate the amount of ________________________ released by the other neuron. 5. The electrical synapse: Electrical current flows from one neuron to another through _________________. These synapses are always (excitatory or inhibitory). Advantages of the electrical synapses: . _______ signal conduction 2. _____________ activity for a group of neurons. 6. The chemical synapse: Chemical synapses are not as fast as electrical but are the most common type of synapse. A chemical, called a/an ______________________, is released from the sending neuron and travels across the ___________________(a gap between the neurons) to the receiving neuron. Advantages of the chemical synapse: 1. The signal can be eithe r ____________ or ____________. 2. The signal can be ______________ as it passes from one neuron to the next. 7. The neuron conducting the impulse toward the synapse is called the __________________ neuron. The axon terminal contains ___________ ____________ filled with ______________________. An action potential in the axon terminal of the _____________ neuron causes the chemical transmitter ____________________ to be released. It diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors on the ________________ membrane. These receptors open __________________. The movement of the charged particles causes an electrical signal called a/an _______________________. How to cite Neuron and Chemical Synapse, Essay examples

Business Intelligence Using Big Data Business Operations

Question: Describe about the Business Intelligence Using Big Data for Business Operations. Answer: Introduction Big data is developing continuously as a result it helps in producing a large sum of income from the business operations. It is analyzed that the use case of big data requires some special operations and therefore the structure that is produced with the arrangement of hardware and software provides a technological effect. It is stated by Akerkar (2013), that big data analytics are very much useful for outlining new strategies, which helps in managing technology at a faster rate. It also helps in providing precise results from the skills used. In this report, analysis of big data has been used for forming strategies that would help in supporting the decision-making system of a selected organization. IBM is chosen for implementing big data procedure. The procedures or strategies of big data have been created for IBM. The report also discusses stack technology that is used for implementing data analytics. The procedure is associated with the recovery, storage and creation analysis of data. There are number of features that are provided by the big data, and those features include diversity, rapidity and volume in the examination of big data. The main objective of this report is to implement the big data framework for the usefulness of different business operations in IBM. Identification, creation and discussion of business strategy for using of big data in IBM Identification of business strategy framework The implementation procedure of big data in any business needs a framework for understanding the basic operations (Assuncao et al. 2013). IBM needs to construct and implement a big data structure in the operational structure. The two dimensions on which big data framework is dependent include Business objectives and Data type. Figure1: Strategy Framework of IBM for Big Data Source (Assuno et al. 2015) Creation of Business Strategy Framework Transactional Data Methods used Business Intelligence: The technique of business intelligence that is used by IBM is user friendly and thus it helps in interactive and multidimensional data analysis (Begoli and Horey 2012). It also provides different features such as rolling up, reporting the capabilities tools and many more. Cluster analysis: It helps in analyzing those objects that have similar attributes and properties. Data Mining: It is used by the organization for extracting as well as processing new patterns. Predictive Models: IBM creates models in order to predict the results from an activity (Buhl et al.2013). SQL: SQL is used for extracting, inserting and managing the values or data in a database. Vendors It helps in reporting the services and the analysis from the server with the help of Microsoft SQL (Chaudhuri 2012). It also helps in providing the business objectives from SAS, SAP, and Business intelligence by using Oracle. Non- Transactional Data Methods Used Crowd Sourcing: IBM uses the technique of crowd sourcing for getting the required services, content or ideas by soliciting contributions from a huge mass of people (Chen et al. 2012). Textual Analyzing: The organization uses the method of textual analysis for analyzing the different content of communication rather using the structure of the content. Analysis of Sentiments: The organization uses the process of sentiment analysis for determining the results of analysis. The results can be positive, negative or neutral (Demirkan and Delen 2013). Network Analysis: IBM uses the procedure of network analysis for calculating the relationship between the elements of networks and nodes. Vendors Visible technologies, Watson services, Radian6 and many more; Discussion of Business strategy framework of IBM The different business strategy framework of IBM includes: Performance Management: It is very much easy as well as helpful in accepting the analytics as well as database of big data. Performance management is useful in order to determine the multidimensional queries and related analytics in the organization (Gandomi and Haider 2015). For example, the big data strategy framework is used for analyzing the purchasing activity, expected turnover of the organization. It helps the managers in making short times and long time decision as well as plans. The functionality of different business intelligence tools is very much helpful for improving both the management and the business operations of the organization. Data Exploration: The data exploration framework is helpful in using the different procedures of data analytics in order to experiment and answer the questions, which has not been properly thought by the management of IBM (Jagadish et al. 2014). It also helps in implying the different predictive models for managing the user-based behavior in different sections of operation such as management and in transaction department of IBM. Big data helps the organization by supplying information and by designing strategies that would help in retaining the various segments of the users. Social Analytics: Social analytics framework is very much helpful for the organization as it helps in measuring the huge amount of non-transactional data such as reviews and platform of social media. The big data strategy is categorized by the social analytics (Katal et al. 2013). The three wide divisions of big data strategy include awareness, engagement and reach of the analysis. Engagement is helpful in measuring the level of interaction and involvement among the team members. Awareness helps in checking the exposure of knowledge in very group members. The members of the organization are quantified based on the level of knowledge and about any particular business function. Decision Science: Decision science helps in analyzing the data that are not related in to the transaction. The big data helps in exploring the rules and regulation in order to focus on the hypothesis and field research (Lazer et al. 2014). It is very much helpful for the IBM for conducting different feedbacks from the community. It helps in fitting both the ideas and it is also used for developing the value of a product. In order to perform the text analysis of sentiment, it needs listening tools (Liebowitz 2013). IBM uses the tools in order to measure the topics that are related with development and interested products. Identification and aligning the business strategys initiative, objective and the task of IBM Identification of Business strategy Aligning the formed strategy with objective, Initiatives and task Integration of multiple strategies of big data Big data can be implemented for multiple uses and thus the company can levitate for combining the strategies of big data (Lohr 2012). For example, Performance management is useful in gaining better production for forming synchronization with the demands and needs of the customers. Building capabilities of big data It is a technology or a process that is required for supporting the initiatives of big data. A plan must be devised by the expertise in order to implement the strategy of big data (Mayer-Schnberger and Cukier 2013).The organization, IBM has to hire skilled managers for guiding the employees who take care of the big data. It is helpful for creating specific group structures in order to focus on the big data analytics and business management. Proactive creation of big data policy IBM needs to update itself with the guidelines and policies for using the big data (Minelli et al. 2012). It is helpful in accessing non-transactional and social data for creating and accessing business operations. Therefore, IBM is greatly influenced by the security and privacy of the business operations. Analysis of Technology Stack for IBM big data The technology stack of big data analytics of IBM has analyzed some components, which are helpful in forming the analytics. Both external as well as internal data sources are required in the market analysis of IBM, which are shown by the different sources (Moniruzzaman and Hossain 2013). For analyzing data, it creates a lake of data. In order to perform the data analytics procedure, stack technology consists of 3V is which are variety, velocity and volume. Volume consists of various amounts of data that needs to be stored and managed. Variety consists of various types of data that are used in the analytics of big data (Raghupathi and Raghupathi 2014). Variety means the various types of data that are used in the big data analytics. Velocity is defined as a speed in which the data in stack technology are recorded and processed. There are different kinds of stack technologies that are used in order to create the architecture of big data analytics in IBM. PIG: A scripting technology is used for processing and analyzing huge quantity of data sets (Sagiroglu and Sinanc 2013).In order to access the engines, apache pig consists of an architectural structure, which also helps in storing clusters of data. YARN: It is one of the acronyms for resource navigator, which is helpful in large-scale data application for distributing the operating system (Shroff et al. 2013).It is very much helpful in combining both the synchronized as well as central resource managers for reconciliation. Hive: This stack technology is useful in summarizing, querying and for analyzing the data which will be helpful for the business insights (Vera-Baquero et al. 2013).The tables that are present in hive are organized in the pattern of granular units for creating the taxonomy. Data analytics and MDM for supporting the business intelligence and decision making of IBM Data analytics: There are three challenges that are required in the management process of big data. The challenges are sorted with the help of the big data analytics. Right data is selected by them in order to handle the operations of data analytics and for using the insights that are gained for transforming the different operations of business (Waller and Fawcett 2013). Big data analytics helps in managing the big data and helps in advancing their analytics. It is very much beneficial in order to deal with the lack of analytical talent that is needed for implementing the big data analytics. It is helpful in creating new roles for job. Big data is acting as revolution in the fields of analytics measurement and administration. The big data analytics is helpful in driving data for the process of decision-making in the business operations of IBM. There is a lot of difference between the data driven and information collected in IBM. It is analyzed that the chances of data lose is more when the data are stored for longer period (Wixom et al. 2014). Big data analytics and business analytics helps in analyzing the data that were stored long before as a result they helps in creating effective results by using it. IBM is benefitted by the big data analytics because each data has role, which in turn helps in assisting the process of decision-making. Master Data management: A method helps in identifying the most important as well as critical data of IBM in order to create a singular source of data for managing the business. It involves different technological solutions to improve the big data processing as well as management, which includes data integration, quality, and management (Wu et al. 2014).The following characteristic of MDN is helpful in supporting the decision-making system of the organization and its business intelligence. Standard Data view: It is helpful in creating single view in order to authorize the critical business management. The MDN process is used by the IBM data analytics in order to resolve the issues such as data disputation, duplication and many more (Begoli and Horey 2012). For example, two people having the same first name will create a trouble in entering the data as a result big data analytics can be used for drawing their last name and addresses in order to distinguish between the two individuals. Complete overview of the relationship: MDN is a big data analytics that helps in identifying the relationship among the different data entity. It will help the organization in combining one data entity with the other based on the relationship of the coefficient. For example, IBM uses MDN to store the names of the purchaser. Managing interactions: It is used in order to integrate the occurrence and transaction of social interaction between the clients and the operators of the business (Chaudhuri 2012). It will create a bridge between the customers and data channel partners in order to complete the views of the customers of IBM. Design features: The factors behind the efficient and proper management of big data analytics include flexibility of the design model, Variability of model operation and scalability functions (Demirkan and Delen 2013). IBM uses all this features in order to use its data analytics. The MDN system does not need coding for its implications therefore and thus it can be easily applied in IBM. The agility of the software process is helpful in creating the focus of the database on the success of the customers. Analyzing support of NoSQL for big data analytics in IBM NoSQL or non-related SQL is helpful in giving various facilities for the big data analytics, which includes scalability, observable alternative different association of strengths, many multinational organizations like Amazon (Gandomi and Haider 2015). Google uses big data NoSQL for working with the operational database. NoSQL has different characteristics for user-friendly advance, which helps in creating and easing the operations of the business database administration properly (Liebowitz 2013). NoSQL is helpful in empowering most of the organizations. NoSQL consists of various systems such as payroll systems, reluctance system and data processing system. NoSQL will be helpful in processing unpredictable as well as unstructured information system in order to provide help to the big data information management of IBM (Lohr 2012). NoSQL assists in solving different bottleneck errors by processing the unstructured database System (Minelli et al. 2012). Hence, the big data purpose of IBM can be managed by using the system of NoSQL. NoSQL is not required for knowing the structure beforehand. This is because the system does not lack schema orientation (Raghupathi and Raghupathi 2014). The system is helpful in solving the data, which is arised due to acid property of the data analytics. Different types of NoSQL databases and its use in big data of IBM Various types of NoSQL databases Description Use in Big Data use case of IBM Key value store It consists of big hash based table of keys and values Example: Riak used by Amazon The schema format of this NoSQL database is helpful in forming the database that is value based. This type of key is helpful in creating as well as generating auto type of data base system (Sagiroglu and Sinanc 2013). IBM can use the system for creating auto-generated database in big data analytics. Document based store It helps in storing elements that are made up of tagged elements Example: couchDB The database of NoSQL format uses various types of key and value pair in order to store the values of the data (Shroff et al. 2013). It is very much helpful for IBM for creating structure and encoding for managing the big data analytics Column based store Each block of storage consists of data that is formed from one column of the system table Example: Cassandra and HBase In this type of database schema, the data is stored in row cells instead of column cells. It is helpful for IBM as it provides the organization with the ease of accessing and fast searching (Waller and Fawcett 2013).The big data that is stored in this type off scheme is helpful in aggregating the data on a single column. Graph based It is a type of database that uses nodes and edges for storing and representing data over the system table Example: Neo4J Graph based NoSQL database schema is pictorial representation of database that in based on the structure of flexible data values structure (Assuncao et al. 2013). It is helpful as it provides IBM the ease of transformation of scheme from one model structure to different model structure (Begoli and Horey 2012). The graph consists of edges and nodes therefore it in helpful in creating elation among the nodes of the data. Role of social media in the decision making process of the organization The social networking plays a crucial function in big data analytics and management of database. It is very much helpful in creating advertisement of the database administration of big data analytics (Buhl et al. 2013). It is helpful in the process of proficient decision-making processes, which became social. The habitual influential cycle of the functions is disrupted with the help of social media and networking. The manager uses the social networking for informing as well as validating the decisions that are related with the big data. According Demirkan and Delen (2013), the facilities that the social media provides includes: Helps in searching the feedbacks and responses of the customers or clients It helps in enhancing the partnership with others. The reliability of the information is improved (Gandomi and Haider 2015). Business decisions are researched over the global market Helps in accessing information or data that are unavailable everywhere It helps in keeping eye on the co-worker and colleagues (Lazer et al. 2014) Evaluation of Big Data Value creation process The big data formation process is vast probable in any business. The procedure is very much useful in forming a link between the providers and the customers. The procedure of big data consists of various processes, which includes inventory, manufacturing distribution and marketing (Lohr 2012).The products or services have to go through number of procedures in order to meet the needs and necessities of the customers. It is stated by Demirkan and Delen (2013), that the steps that are helpful for the company includes: Manufacture of goods Creating inventory of products and services Study of physical resources (Waller and Fawcett 2013). delivery to retail shops Mass advertising of goods It is stated by Moniruzzaman and Hossain (2013), the value creation procedure of IBM includes: Increase in the number of clients Improving the techniques of the market Optimizing the supply chain (Sagiroglu and Sinanc 2013). Reducing the price of the stir Increasing the turnover of the inventory Enhancing the effectiveness of hiring Conclusion It is concluded from the report that big data analytics is used in order to increase the revenue of an organization. Both hardware as well as software technology have affected the operations of the business. The big data analytics is very much useful in meeting the demands of the customers. It is analyzed that in this assignment IBM is selected for the implementing procedure of big data analytics. The strategies that are used for big data analytics are created using the formation or creation procedure. It is concluded that the big data analytics is very much helpful in creating new technologies and it is extremely helpful in meeting the demands of the customers. References Akerkar, R. ed., 2013.Big data computing. CRC Press. Assuncao, M.D., Calheiros, R.N., Bianchi, S., Netto, M.A. and Buyya, R., 2013. Big Data computing and clouds: challenges, solutions, and future directions.arXiv preprint arXiv:1312.4722. Assuno, M.D., Calheiros, R.N., Bianchi, S., Netto, M.A. and Buyya, R., 2015. Big Data computing and clouds: Trends and future directions.Journal of Parallel and Distributed Computing,79, pp.3-15. Begoli, E. and Horey, J., 2012, August. Design principles for effective knowledge discovery from big data. InSoftware Architecture (WICSA) and European Conference on Software Architecture (ECSA), 2012 joint working IEEE/IFIP conference on(pp. 215-218). IEEE. Buhl, H.U., Rglinger, M., Moser, F. and Heidemann, J., 2013. Big data.Business Information Systems Engineering,5(2), pp.65-69. Chaudhuri, S., 2012, May. What next?: a half-dozen data management research goals for big data and the cloud. InProceedings of the 31st ACM SIGMOD-SIGACT-SIGAI symposium on Principles of Database Systems(pp. 1-4). ACM. Chen, H., Chiang, R.H. and Storey, V.C., 2012. Business Intelligence and Analytics: From Big Data to Big Impact.MIS quarterly,36(4), pp.1165-1188. Demirkan, H. and Delen, D., 2013. Leveraging the capabilities of service-oriented decision support systems: Putting analytics and big data in cloud.Decision Support Systems,55(1), pp.412-421. Gandomi, A. and Haider, M., 2015. Beyond the hype: Big data concepts, methods, and analytics.International Journal of Information Management,35(2), pp.137-144. Jagadish, H.V., Gehrke, J., Labrinidis, A., Papakonstantinou, Y., Patel, J.M., Ramakrishnan, R. and Shahabi, C., 2014. Big data and its technical challenges.Communications of the ACM,57(7), pp.86-94. Katal, A., Wazid, M. and Goudar, R.H., 2013, August. Big data: issues, challenges, tools and good practices. InContemporary Computing (IC3), 2013 Sixth International Conference on(pp. 404-409). IEEE. Lazer, D., Kennedy, R., King, G. and Vespignani, A., 2014. The parable of Google flu: traps in big data analysis.Science,343(6176), pp.1203-1205. Liebowitz, J. ed., 2013.Big data and business analytics. CRC Press. Lohr, S., 2012. The age of big data.New York Times,11. Mayer-Schnberger, V. and Cukier, K., 2013.Big data: A revolution that will transform how we live, work, and think. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Zaman, N., Seliaman, M.E., Hassan, M.F. and Marquez, F.P.G., 2015.Handbook of Research on Trends and Future Directions in Big Data and Web Intelligence. Information Science Reference. Minelli, M., Chambers, M. and Dhiraj, A., 2012.Big data, big analytics: emerging business intelligence and analytic trends for today's businesses. John Wiley Sons. Moniruzzaman, A.B.M. and Hossain, S.A., 2013. Nosql database: New era of databases for big data analytics-classification, characteristics and comparison.arXiv preprint arXiv:1307.0191. Raghupathi, W. and Raghupathi, V., 2014. Big data analytics in healthcare: promise and potential.Health Information Science and Systems,2(1), p.1. Sagiroglu, S. and Sinanc, D., 2013, May. Big data: A review. InCollaboration Technologies and Systems (CTS), 2013 International Conference on(pp. 42-47). IEEE. Shroff, G., Dey, L. and Agrawal, P., 2013. Social Business Intelligence Using Big Data.CSI Communications, pp.11-16. Vera-Baquero, A., Colomo-Palacios, R. and Molloy, O., 2013. Business process analytics using a big data approach.IT Professional,15(6), pp.29-35. Waller, M.A. and Fawcett, S.E., 2013. Data science, predictive analytics, and big data: a revolution that will transform supply chain design and management.Journal of Business Logistics,34(2), pp.77-84. Wixom, B., Ariyachandra, T., Douglas, D., Goul, M., Gupta, B., Iyer, L., Kulkarni, U., Mooney, J.G., Phillips-Wren, G. and Turetken, O., 2014. The current state of business intelligence in academia: The arrival of big data.Communications of the Association for Information Systems,34(1), p.1. Wu, X., Zhu, X., Wu, G.Q. and Ding, W., 2014. Data mining with big data.IEEE transactions on knowledge and data engineering,26(1), pp.97-107.

A Brief History of Women in Higher Education

A Brief History of Women in Higher Education While more women than men have attended college in the U.S. since the late 1970s, female students were largely prevented from pursuing higher education until the 19th century. Before then, female seminaries were the primary alternative for women who wished to earn a higher degree. But women’s rights activists fought for higher education for female students, and college campuses turned out to be fertile ground for gender equality activism. Female Grads During the 17th and 18th Centuries Before the formal desegregation of mens and womens higher education, a small number of women graduated from universities. Most were from wealthy or well-educated families, and the oldest examples of such women can be found in Europe. Juliana Morell earned a law doctorate in Spain in 1608.Anna Maria van Schurman attended the university at Utrecht, Netherlands, in 1636.Ursula Agricola and Maria Jonae Palmgren were admitted to college in Sweden in 1644.Elena Cornaro Piscopia earned a doctor of philosophy degree at the University of Padua, Italy, in 1678.Laura Bassi earned a doctor of philosophy degree at the University of Bologna, Italy, in 1732, and then became the first woman to teach in an official capacity at any European University.Cristina Roccati received a university degree in Italy in 1751.Aurora Liljenroth graduated from college in Sweden in 1788, the first woman to do so. U.S. Seminaries Educated Women in the 1700s In 1742, the Bethlehem Female Seminary was established in Germantown, Pennsylvania, becoming the first institute of higher education for women in the United States. It was founded by the Countess Benigna von Zinzendorf, daughter of Count Nicholas von Zinzendorf, under his sponsorship. She was only 17 years old at the time.  In 1863, the state officially recognized the institution as a college and the college was then permitted to issue bachelor’s degrees. In 1913, the college was renamed the Moravian Seminary and College for Women, and, later, the institution became co-educational. Thirty years after Bethlehem opened, the Moravian sisters founded Salem College in North Carolina. It since became the Salem Female Academy and is still open today. Womens Higher Ed at the Turn of the 18th Century In 1792, Sarah Pierce founded the Litchfield Female Academy in Connecticut. The Rev. Lyman Beecher (father of Catherine Beecher, Harriet Beecher Stowe, and Isabella Beecher Hooker) was among the lecturers at the school, part of the republican motherhood ideological trend. The school focused on educating women so that they could be responsible for raising an educated citizenry. Eleven years after Litchfield was established, Bradford Academy in Bradford, Massachusetts, began admitting women. Fourteen men and 37 women graduated in the first class of students. In 1837, the school changed its focus to only admit women.   Options for Women During the 1820s In 1821, Clinton Female Seminary opened; it would later merge into the Georgia Female College. Two years later, Catharine Beecher founded the Hartford Female Seminary, but the school did not survive beyond the 19th century. Beechers sister, writer Harriet Beecher Stowe, was a student at Hartford Female Seminary and later a teacher there.  Fanny Fern, a children’s author, and newspaper columnist, also graduated from Hartford. Lindon Wood School for Girls was founded in 1827 and continued as Lindenwood University. This was the first school of higher education for women that was located west of the Mississippi. The next year, Zilpah Grant founded Ipswich Academy, with Mary Lyon as an early principal. The purpose of the school was to prepare young women to be missionaries and teachers. The school took the name Ipswich Female Seminary in 1848 and operated until 1876. In 1834, Mary Lyon established the Wheaton Female Seminary in Norton, Massachusetts. She then started the Mount Holyoke Female Seminary in South Hadley, Massachusetts, in 1837. Mount Holyoke received a collegiate charter in 1888, and today the schools are known as Wheaton College and Mount Holyoke College. Schools for Female Students During the 1830s Columbia Female Academy opened in 1833. It later became a full college and exists today as Stephens College. Now called Wesleyan, Georgia Female College was created in 1836 specifically so women could earn bachelor’s degrees. The following year, St. Mary’s Hall was founded in New Jersey as a female seminary. It is today a pre-K through high school named Doane Academy. More Inclusive Higher Ed From the 1850s Onward In 1849, Elizabeth Blackwell graduated from Geneva Medical College in Geneva, New York. She was the first woman in America admitted to a medical school and the first in the United States to receive a medical degree. The next year, Lucy Sessions made history when she graduated with a literary degree from Oberlin College in Ohio. She became the First African-American female college graduate. Oberlin was founded in 1833 and admitted four women as full students in 1837.  Only a few years later, more than a third (but less than half) of the student body were women. After Sessions earned her history-making degree from Oberlin, Mary Jane Patterson, in 1862, became the first African-American woman to earn a bachelors degree. Higher education opportunities for women really expanded during the late 1800s. The Ivy League colleges had been solely available to male students, but companion colleges for women, known as the Seven Sisters, were founded from 1837 to 1889.

Definition and Examples of Target Domain in Metaphor

Definition and Examples of Target Domain in Metaphor In a conceptual metaphor, the target domain is the  quality or experience described by or identified with  the source domain. Also known as the  image recipient. In Introducing Metaphor (2006), Knowles and Moon note that conceptual metaphors equate two concept areas, as in ARGUMENT IS WAR. The term source domain is used for the concept area from which the metaphor is drawn: here, WAR. Target domain is used for the concept area to which the metaphor is applied: here, ARGUMENT. The terms target and source were introduced by George  Lakoff and Mark Johnson  in Metaphors We Live By (1980).  Although the more traditional terms tenor and vehicle (I.A. Richards, 1936)  are roughly equivalent to target domain and source domain, respectively, the traditional terms fail to emphasize the interaction between the two domains.  Ã‚  As  William P. Brown points out, The  terms target domain and source domain  not only acknowledge a certain parity of import between the metaphor and its referent but they also illustrate more precisely the dynamic that occurs when something is referenced metaphorically- a superimposing or unilateral mapping of one domain on another (Psalms, 2010). See Examples and Observations below. Also see: Cognitive LinguisticsConceptual BlendingConceptual DomainMetaphorical ClusterTenorWhat Is a Metaphor? Examples and Observations The Two Domains The two domains that participate in conceptual metaphor have special names. The conceptual domain from which we draw metaphorical expressions to understand another conceptual domain is called source domain, while the conceptual domain that is understood this way is the target domain. Thus, life, arguments, love, theory,  ideas, social organizations, and others are target domains, while journeys, war, buildings, food, plants, and others are source domains. The target domain is the domain we try to understand through the use of the source domain. - Zoltan Kovecses, Metaphor: A Practical Introduction. Oxford University Press, 2001   ​Target and Source Domains in LOVE IS A JOURNEY Metaphorical concepts fulfill all their functions . . . through a network of metaphorical expressions. . . . [T]ake the following example: Conceptual metaphor:LOVE IS A JOURNEYMetaphorical expressions:this relationship is foundering,we are going nowhere,this relationship is a dead-end street,we are at a crossroads, etc. . . . Metaphors connect two conceptual domains: the target domain and the source domain. In the course of metaphorical processes the source domain corresponds to the target domain; in other words, there is a mapping or a projection between the source domain and the target domain. The target domain X is understood in terms of the source domain Y. For example, in the case of the metaphorical concept mentioned above, LOVE is the target domain whereas JOURNEY is the source domain. Whenever JOURNEY is mapped onto LOVE, the two domains correspond to each other in a way which enables us to interpret LOVE as a JOURNEY. - Andrs Kertà ©sz, Cognitive Semantics and Scientific Knowledge. John Benjamins, 2004Mappings -  The term mapping  comes from the nomenclature of mathematics. Its application in metaphor research basically means that features from a  source domain (e.g. OBJECTS) are mapped onto a target domain (e.g. IDEAS). The term metaphorical expression refers to the surface realization of such a cross-domain mapping which is virtually what the term metaphor used to refer to (Lakoff 1993:203).(Markus Tendahl, A Hybrid Theory of Metaphor. Palgrave Macmillan, 2009)  Ã‚  Ã‚  It is possible for two different parts of a sentence to make use of two distinct metaphorical mappings at once. Consider a phrase like, within the coming weeks. Here, within makes use of the metaphor of time as a stationary landscape which has extension and bounded regions, whereas coming makes use of the metaphor of times as moving objects. This is possible because the two metaphors for time pick out different aspects of the target domain.(George Lakoff, The Contemporary Theory of Metaphor, Metaphor and Thought, ed. by A. Ortony. Cambridge University  Press, 1993)

The Resiliency of the Adjutant General Officer Article

The Resiliency of the Adjutant General Officer - Article Example The department is responsible for the total security of the state; thus, vital to the military. Basing on the ideologies of Shamir, the officer may experience short-term challenges that show stress-related concerns. Therefore, the officer should find the best method to manage the symptoms associated with stressful areas and improve performance. The resiliency of such an officer is evident in divergent pillars strengths such as family, emotional, sacred, bodily and communal. In relation to family, a secure, helpful and caring family is vital to the life of the officer as it assists in dealing with tension. The army itself is a family; thus, the officer has the opportunity to count on friends whenever there is a need. Interestingly, the officer has enormous responsibilities and can overcome this challenge by selecting soldiers who will act as assistants creating more time with their family. Seward asserts that physical resiliency of the officer is paramount as it does not involve the outside body fitness but also how the officer achieves divergent processes under tension; thus, the need for aerobic strength, vigor, and patience. This involves a body in good physical shape built and maintained using quality behaviors and sane choices. In order to have a healthy body, the officer should frequently exercise. In addition, proper eating habits are important. The Adjutant General Officer exercises emotional resiliency; thus, their ability to tackle difficulties with hope. Indeed, the officer may encounter rude and irresponsible soldiers; thus, should always exercise calmness in order to think clearly and make right decisions. In addition, it is fundamental to minimize anxiety as it creates concerns that will spread to others.

Performance Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Performance Management - Essay Example The analysis and better decision making can be done by discussing the components of cost and their effects on the overall cost and final decision to be taken. All the costs that can affect the decision, rather all the relevant costs should be considered in this case. It is important to distinguish between relevant and irrelevant costs for the decision making purposes as it allows better decision making for cost reduction and cost maximization. Additionally overheads allocation should also be done on fairer and activity driven basis so that better decisions can be taken. (DRURY, C. 2008; HANSEN, MOWEN, & HANSEN.2006) The company shall lay150 meters of pipe each week in-house to utilize its labour and machine, however decision has to be taken for the remaining 750 meters for small pipe and 300 meters of large pipe to be laid in-house or subcontracted. Direct Material Cost: The company has an option to subcontract the project where the material cost will be borne by subcontractor, charg ed by UGC in the price quoted. On the other hand the company if undertakes the project in-house the direct material cost will be ?45/per meter on small pipe and ?55/meter on large pipe. Direct Labour Cost: Company can use in-house labour by shifting labour from other departments, there will be no opportunity cost involved as the company has substitute labour to be used in other department on the same rate. The crucial think here will be to decide if it is cost effective to use in-house labor if they are paid on overtime basis or would it be beneficial to subcontract. Also which of the pipes, small or large should be laid by the limited labour provided. (PROCTOR, R. 2009) Variable Overheads: With increasing automation the labour hours and costs have decreased and companies have lost the traditional measure of allocating overheads and therefore activity based costing, that is assigning costs to cost drivers are now used. If company decides to complete the project in-house it will incu r variable overheads on per meter of pipe laid. Small pipe will incur ?5 while large pipe will incur ?10 on each meter of pipe laid. The variable overheads are allocated on the basis of meter, which is on the basis of activity rather than direct labour hours that is overheads are allocated on cost drivers basis. (KAPLAN & ANDERSON. 2007; HANSEN, MOWEN & GUAN, L. 2009) Fixed Overheads: Fixed overheads are irrelevant for decision making purposes and become unchanged regardless of the activity. In the scenario lease rentals are the fixed cost. These will be incurred by the company whatever decision might be taken and are irrelevant to the decision. If UGC subcontracts or undertakes the project in-house, in both the cases it has to pay the lease rentals for the machines. (WEYGANDT, KIESO & KIMME.2009; HANSEN, MOWEN, & HANSEN.2006) Detailed Analysis: UGC has decided to lay 150 meters of each type of pipe using the in-house facility. The remaining will be either subcontracted or will be d one in-house depending on the cost and availability of labour. Direct labour is the limited resource in the project and company has to take its decision subject to availability. After laying 150 meters of each type of pipe which it plans to do, UGC will be left with 72.5 hours of direct labour on normal rate and 100 hours on overtime rate of Machine E and 30 hours on normal rate and 90 hours on overtime rate of Machine J. UGC now has to decide whether to lay small pipe or large pipe in this remaining capacity. For this it shall consider the cost it will incur to outsource the pipes and the cost of utilization of labour on normal and overtime rates. It will cost UGC ?56.83/meter of small pipe and ?89.16/ meter of large pipe using the normal labour. UGC has to incur ?60.83/meter to lay small pi

International Finance - HSBC vs BP Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

International Finance - HSBC vs BP - Essay Example This essay declares that British petroleum shortly known as BP was formed in 1998 from the merger of British Petroleum and Amoco grew by buying Atlantic Richfield Company. BP has proved reserves of 18.3 billion barrels of oil equivalent including large holdings in Alaska. BP is the largest oil producer in the US and also top refiner processing 2.8 billions barrels of crude oil per day. BP operates 28,500 gas stations worldwide, including 15,900 in the US. With the success of its ‘BP solar international subsidiary’ BP has created BP alternative Energy (hydrogen, solar and wind power generation) with an initial investment of $1.8 billion. British Petroleum (BP) is one of six vertically integrated private sector oil, natural gas and gasoline super-majors in the world. In the year 2006 BP was ranked 4th in the world by the Fortune Global 500 list, for turnover with sales at $268 billion. This paper stresses that the main issue faced by multinational corporations in the international financial environment is the valuation of such projects whose cash-flows depend on the exchange rate. Two approaches are used: one based on option-valuation methods and the second based on equilibrium arguments that rely on the international capital asset pricing model. The other factors which need consideration are tax planning and the management of flow of funds within foreign subsidiaries of a given multinational. Two essential and related aspects of this environment are first, the foreign exchange market in which exchange rates are determined and second the international financial system governing exchange rate determination. There is a close connection between interest rates, inflation, and exchange rates.

Dimensions of Organisational Misbehaviour

Dimensions of Organisational Misbehaviour Critically discuss the dimensions where organisational misbehaviour is rooted. Use relevant academic references and organisational examples to illustrate. Whilst the subject of organisational behaviour has been widely studied, as a method for improving the performance of organisations and improving the level of managerial control, organisational misbehaviour has received considerably less attention. Indeed, Ambrose et al (2002) argue that there is little agreement around the dominant motives of sabotage; which Ackroyd and Thompson (1999) cite as being the most hostile example of appropriation of work. This makes it somewhat difficult to accurately assess and discuss the dimensions where such misbehaviour is actually rooted, with the majority of the literature focusing on the impacts and manifestations of organisational behaviour, rather than the root causes. In spite of these difficulties, this piece will attempt to uncover the dimensions where organisational behaviour is rooted, through a detailed analysis and interpretation of the literature around organisational misbehaviour. One of the most interesting explanations comes from Spicer and Bohm (2007) who argue that organisational misbehaviour is simply another one of the methods through which workers can resist the hegemony of management. As such, this view of organisational misbehaviour fits it within the general framework of worker resistance, which includes trade unions and civic movements. Indeed, Spicer and Bohm (2007) argue that these forms of resistance only differ in terms of whether they take place inside or outside the workplace, and whether they are conducted inside or outside the organisational and societal norms. As such, one of the dimensions where organisational misbehaviour is rooted is arguably in the fact that managers have such absolute control over workers that workers will naturally tend to look for a way to regain some of this control. Organisational misbehaviour may simply be a method for achieving this for workers whose concerns are not met by unions or civil movements. Boddy (2006) looks at another potential cause: the presence of so called ‘organisational psychopaths’, who are determined to make life difficult and exploit the organisations and corporations which employ them. Their study indicates that organisational psychopaths make up around one per cent of the employable population but, similar to societal psychopaths, are almost undetectable to employers and co workers. As such, they manage to present themselves as being desirable employees, in order to obtain valuable positions within organisations. Their psychopathic nature means that they have no conscience, and hence are willing to lie, charm and manipulate their way through an organisation, in order to pursue their ultimate goals. These may be to obtain power and status, or may simply be to obtain as much wealth as easily as possible. As such, they tend to create the majority of organisational misbehaviour, using tools such as fraud, stock manipulation, theft, lying and other methods. In the worst case, such psychopaths can rise to the top of a major corporation, and hence the entire organisation indulges in misbehaviour designed to benefit itself at the expense of society (Boddy, 2006). Everton et al (2005) provide a different argument, claiming that whilst some employees will simply misbehave, due to circumstances or a lack of morals, the majority of organisational misbehaviour occurs in response to unfair managerial policies. Indeed, their initial case study demonstrates how previously responsible and high performing employees can be turned to organisational misbehaviour, such as the appropriation of time, by poor quality supervision. Their other research also demonstrates how Robinson and Bennett’s (1995) typology of organisational misbehaviour can be used to support a correlation between management styles and fairness, and organisational misbehaviour. Whilst, this study runs into significant difficulties as a result of the difficulties in separating genuine issues, such as illness, from organisational misbehaviour, such as calling in sick. However, it also points out significant variations in rates of theft, turnover and aggression, and indicates that the se variations can largely be explained by the level of fairness displayed by managers, and the amount of organisational justice present in the organisation (Everton et al, 2005). As such, the level of fairness and justice can be seen as a significant dimension where organisational misbehaviour is rooted. Gruys and Sackett (2003) also revealed three further dimensions in which organisational misbehaviour was rooted. The first two of these stemmed from the results of their study into the root causes, and showed that the interpersonal and organisational relationships were a key driver of organisational misbehaviour, as was the task relevance. This indicates that the relationships that employees hold with their co workers, and the organisation as a whole, are key drivers of organisational misbehaviour: if an employee does not get on well with their co workers, they are more likely to let them down by skipping work or other forms of misbehaviour. Also, as was also shown by Everton et al (2005), giving an employee a task which is not relevant to their skills or interests is more likely to increase their level of misbehaviour and discontent. However, one interesting finding which was not part of the actual study was the discovery of general positive correlations between all different types of organisational misbehaviour. This tends to indicate that initial misbehaviour leads to more, potentially more serious, offences. For example, an employee who successfully claims one fake sick day may be encouraged to claim more, and may then move on to other offences such as theft and fraud (Gruys and Sackett, 2003). Another potential dimension comes from the public sector in the UK, where government reforms of the NHS have led to doctors becoming increasingly responsible for the overall management of the hospital. As a result of this role confusion, and workload increase, many doctors have begun to engage in what could be referred to as organisational misbehaviour (Forbes et al, 2004). In particular, this can involve breaches of management expectations, and a move towards getting even, when these breaches occur. However, this type of misbehaviour tended to be strongly dependent on the nature of in individual, with some doctors actively pursuing their management responsibilities, and others merely assuming management roles out of a belief that they must, or that if they did not they would fall under the influence of less capable managers. As such, the ones who reluctantly assumed managerial roles were more likely to poor relationships with hospital managers, as a result of their unwillingness und erstand and fulfil their dual responsibilities (Forbes et al, 2004). This indicates that role confusion can be a contributor to organisational misbehaviour, for certain types of people. Finally, Johnson and Indvik (2001) provide a potentially more mundane dimension along which some transitory organisational misbehaviour, such as incivility and anger, can be rooted. Their data implies that factors such as workplace stress and a dislike of the actual act of working can encourage incivility, and sometimes hostility, towards co workers. Whilst these issues have not been proven to lead to more serious forms of organisational misbehaviour, given that Gruys and Sackett (2003) have shown that misbehaviour tends to breed further misbehaviour, it is clear that even minor forms of misbehaviour such as these need to be addressed or they can spread throughout an organisation. In conclusion, there are a variety of dimensions within which organisational misbehaviour is rooted, some of which are internal to the organisation, and some of which are simply inherent to the particular individual, such as an unwillingness to undertake a certain role, or even organisational psychopathy. In addition, the literature has shown that even minor concerns, such as stress or dislike of work, can lead to initial organisational misbehaviour, and this misbehaviour can then potentially spiral and trigger more serious misbehaviour. As such, it is important for any organisation to do as much as possible to minimise the managerial and organisational factors which create and exacerbate organisational misbehaviour. References Ackroyd, S. and Thompson, P. (1999) Organisational Misbehaviour. London: Sage Publications Ltd. Ambrose, M. L. Seabright, M. A. and Schminkec, M. (2002) Sabotage in the workplace: The role of organizational injustice. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes; Vol. 89, p. 947-965. Boddy, C. R. (2006) The dark side of management decisions: organisational Psychopaths. Management Decision; Vol. 44, Issue 10, p. 1461-1475. Everton, W. J. Jolton, J. A. and Mastrangelo, P. M. (2005) Be nice and fair or else: understanding reasons for employees’ deviant behaviours. Journal of Management Development; Vol. 26, Issue 2, p. 117-131. Forbes, T. Hallier, J. and Kelly, L. (2004) Doctors as managers: investors and reluctants in a dual role. Health Services Management Research; Vol. 17, Issue 3, p. 167-176. Gruys, M. L. and Sackett, P. R. (2003) Investigating the Dimensionality of Counterproductive Work Behaviour. International Journal of Selection and Assessment; Vol. 11, Issue 1, p. 30-42. Johnson, P. R. and Indvik, J. (2001) Rudeness and Work: Impulse over Restraint. Public Personnel Management; Vol. 30, Issue 4, p. 457-465. Robinson, S. and Bennett, R. (1995) A typology of deviant workplace behaviors: a multidimensional scaling study. Academy of Management Journal; Vol. 38, Issue 2, p. 555-72. Spicer, A. and BÃ ¶hm, S. (2007) Moving Management: Theorizing Struggles against the Hegemony of Management. Organization Studies; Vol. 28, Issue 11, p. 1667-1698.

Poopie Pants :: essays research papers

Poopie Pants When is the End of the World?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The end of the world has indeed in no doubt been a concept that has grasped the minds of both ancient and modern civilizations. Both new and old civilizations are actually very different from each other. While technology is getting better, the old ancient religous views slowly diminish. Although the two are very different, the both have the same destructive result.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The majority of ancient belif in the end of the world comes deeply from their religon. In essence, they belived that their god(s) would destroy them by a natural disaster such as a flood because of their sins. An example of this is that the ancient Romans belived that Zues will flood the world hoping the cleanse earth of all sin. Because Mount Olympus was up so high in the sky, a flood was the natural disaster of choice because it will keep the gods safe. Other religons too belived in a mass flood in the hope to clense of sin. One of the most famous is the Catholic tale of Noah and the Ark. Here, God floods the earth for fourty days and fourty nights while it was Noah’s responsibility to put two of each animal in the ark, hoping to start a new world when the flood was over; much similar to what the ancient Romans belived. No matter what the ancient religon, they really belived deeply in their religon in some sort of natural diaster.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In todays modern world, as technology grew, more different medthods grew out from the two dimentional religous view. To expand on this idea, during the space race in the ‘60s, scientist have learned the devistating effect an asteroid has if the earth was to be struck by one. If it hits land, the dust would cover the earth and not let sun light in killing plant and animal life. We are not even safe if an asteroid were to hit the ocean. Scientist have determined that an asteroid the size of Manhatten would hit the ocean, it would cast a four-hundred foot or bigger tidal wave and engulf most of the continents ocean line. Speaking of Manhatten, eversince the completion of the Manhatten project, humanity has the ability to destroy the world with nuclear, hydrogen, and atom bombs.

Weighted Average Cost of Capital

WACC: Weighted average cost of capital =WACC= SS+B? Rs+BS+B? RB? 1-tC note: Rs , cost of equity; RB , cost of debt; tC , corporate tax rate. For cost of equity, Rs, we calculate it by using the SML, according to CAPM model. Rs=RF+ [RM-RF] As we can see in the chart behind the case, beta of Worldwide Paper Company is 1. 10; the Market risk premium (RM-RF) is 6. 0%. Because this on-site longwood woodyard project has six year life and the investment spend over two years, the total long of this program is more closer to 10-years, we choose the 10-year government bonds as risk free rate, 4. 60%.Thus, Rs=4. 60%+1. 10? 6. 0% =11. 20%. For the cost of debt, there are two kinds of debts of Worldwide Paper Company, bank loan and long-term debt. The cost of long-term debt is 5. 78% (A rating 10-years maturities corporate bonds) , and the value of long term debt is $2500M. Thus, RB=5. 78%. For the value of equity and debt, market value weights are more appropriate than book value weights, becaus e the market values of the securities are closer to the actual dollars that would be received from their sale. There are the market weights expected to prevail over the life of the firm or the project.S=500? $24. 00=$12,000M; B=$2500 RWACC=1200012000+3000? 11. 20%+300012000+3000? 5. 88%=9. 76% Payback Period: YEAR| 2007| 2008| 2009| 2010| 2011| 2012| 2013| Total CF of investment| -16| -2. 4| -0. 6| Â  | Â  | Â  | 2. 08| OCF| Â  | 2. 88| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| Cumulative CF| -16| -15. 52| -11. 62| -7. 12| -2. 62| 1. 88| 8. 46| Thus, the payback period is 4+2. 624. 5=4. 58 year. Discounted Payback Period: YEAR| 2007| 2008| 2009| 2010| 2011| 2012| 2013| Total CF of investment| -16| -2. 4| -0. 6| 0| 0| 0| 2. 08| discounted CF of investment| -16| -2. 18| -0. 0| 0| 0| 0| 1. 18| OCF| Â  | 2. 88| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| discounted OCF| Â  | 2. 62| 3. 73| 3. 39| 3. 09| 2. 81| 2. 56| sum| -16| 0. 44| 3. 23| 3. 39| 3. 09| 2. 81| 3. 74| Cumulative CF| -16| -15. 56| -12. 33| - 8. 94| -5. 85| -3. 04| 0. 70| Thus, the discounted payback period is 5+3. 044. 5=5. 81 year. Average Accounting Method: YEAR| 2007| 2008| 2009| 2010| 2011| 2012| 2013| average| net income| Â  | -0. 12| 1. 5| 1. 5| 1. 5| 1. 5| 1. 5| 1. 23| investment| 16| 15. 4| 13| 10| 7| 4| 0| 9. 34| Thus, AAR=Average net incomeAverage investment=1. 239. 34=13. 16% Weighted Average Cost of Capital WACC: Weighted average cost of capital =WACC= SS+B? Rs+BS+B? RB? 1-tC note: Rs , cost of equity; RB , cost of debt; tC , corporate tax rate. For cost of equity, Rs, we calculate it by using the SML, according to CAPM model. Rs=RF+ [RM-RF] As we can see in the chart behind the case, beta of Worldwide Paper Company is 1. 10; the Market risk premium (RM-RF) is 6. 0%. Because this on-site longwood woodyard project has six year life and the investment spend over two years, the total long of this program is more closer to 10-years, we choose the 10-year government bonds as risk free rate, 4. 60%.Thus, Rs=4. 60%+1. 10? 6. 0% =11. 20%. For the cost of debt, there are two kinds of debts of Worldwide Paper Company, bank loan and long-term debt. The cost of long-term debt is 5. 78% (A rating 10-years maturities corporate bonds) , and the value of long term debt is $2500M. Thus, RB=5. 78%. For the value of equity and debt, market value weights are more appropriate than book value weights, becaus e the market values of the securities are closer to the actual dollars that would be received from their sale. There are the market weights expected to prevail over the life of the firm or the project.S=500? $24. 00=$12,000M; B=$2500 RWACC=1200012000+3000? 11. 20%+300012000+3000? 5. 88%=9. 76% Payback Period: YEAR| 2007| 2008| 2009| 2010| 2011| 2012| 2013| Total CF of investment| -16| -2. 4| -0. 6| Â  | Â  | Â  | 2. 08| OCF| Â  | 2. 88| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| Cumulative CF| -16| -15. 52| -11. 62| -7. 12| -2. 62| 1. 88| 8. 46| Thus, the payback period is 4+2. 624. 5=4. 58 year. Discounted Payback Period: YEAR| 2007| 2008| 2009| 2010| 2011| 2012| 2013| Total CF of investment| -16| -2. 4| -0. 6| 0| 0| 0| 2. 08| discounted CF of investment| -16| -2. 18| -0. 0| 0| 0| 0| 1. 18| OCF| Â  | 2. 88| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| 4. 5| discounted OCF| Â  | 2. 62| 3. 73| 3. 39| 3. 09| 2. 81| 2. 56| sum| -16| 0. 44| 3. 23| 3. 39| 3. 09| 2. 81| 3. 74| Cumulative CF| -16| -15. 56| -12. 33| - 8. 94| -5. 85| -3. 04| 0. 70| Thus, the discounted payback period is 5+3. 044. 5=5. 81 year. Average Accounting Method: YEAR| 2007| 2008| 2009| 2010| 2011| 2012| 2013| average| net income| Â  | -0. 12| 1. 5| 1. 5| 1. 5| 1. 5| 1. 5| 1. 23| investment| 16| 15. 4| 13| 10| 7| 4| 0| 9. 34| Thus, AAR=Average net incomeAverage investment=1. 239. 34=13. 16%

DBQ on Political Parties in 1790 essays

DBQ on Political Parties in 1790 essays A political party is a group of people who seek to win elections and hold public office in order to shape government policy and programs. George Washington warned Americas people of the dangers of these separate parties in The Farewell Address an except is shown in Document 4. Washington opposed political parties because It agitates the community with ill-founded jealousies and false alarms; kindles the animosity of one party against another; foments[stirs up]...riot and insurrection [rebellion]. Political parties began to rise rapidly in the 1790s. Several issues being the cause. Alexander Hamilton, used the nations huge debts (owed to other countries and its own citizens) as an opportunity to push for the kind of national government that he wanted. He was a federalist, a supporter of strong national power, he had little faith in the people. He believed the constitution was not enough to preserve the new nation. After dealing with the south about his plan regarding the debts and assuming state debts, Hamilton created a tax on imported goods. A tax which Thomas Jefferson disagreed with. Document 3 is an excerpt from a letter written by Thomas Jefferson in December of 1794, speaking of Jeffersons perspective on this tax. He describes it as infernal [hellish] showing a deep disapproval. Many other Americans did not like Hamiltons plan because they did not want the federal government interfering with local and state affairs. This Federalist program suggested a return to monarchy. Jefferson began to obtain followers who agreed with his viewpoint, seeing Hamilton as a monarchist. Document 1 is an excerpt from a memo written by Thomas Jefferson, he says that Hamilton was [in support] of a monarchy [based upon] corruption. This attempt to return to aristocracy was seen by many as an assault on the hard-won liberty of the American people. ...

Problems in Education in Society essays

Problems in Education in Society essays According to "A Nation at Risk", the American education system has declined due to a "rising tide of mediocrity" in our schools. States such as New York have responded to the findings and recommendations of the report by implementing such strategies as the "Regents Action Plan" and the "New Compact for Learning". In the early 1980s, President Regan ordered a national commission to study our education system. The findings of this commission were that, compared with other industrialized nations, our education system is grossly inadequate in meeting the standards of education that many other countries have developed. At one time, America was the world leader in technology, service, and industry, but overconfidence based on a historical belief in our superiority has caused our nation to fall behind the rapidly growing competitive market in the world with regard to education. The report in some respects is an unfair comparison of our education system, which does not have a national standard for goals, curriculum, or regulations, with other countries that do, but the findings nevertheless reflect the need for change. Our education system at this time is regulated by states which implement their own curriculum, set their own goals and have their own requirements for teacher preparation. Combined with this is the fact that we have lowered our expectations in these areas, thus we are not providing an equal or quality education to all students across the country. The commission findings generated recommendations to improve the content of education and raise the standards of student achievement, particularly in testing, increase the time spent on education and provide incentives to encourage more individuals to enter the field of education as well as improving N.Y. State responded to these recommendations by first implementing the Reg...

French Philosopher Sartre on Consciousness Essay

French Philosopher Sartre on Consciousness - Essay Example Articles about him ranged from speculations about the trauma which led to his philosophies in later life to what some refer to as his "God problem." His importance lies, however, in the defence of his stand on the absolute right of humans to freedom and responsibility. (O'Donohoe, 2005) Sartre wrote about many things, mainly the essence of what it is to be human. Later on in his life, he became interested in political philosophy and dabbled in the teachings of Marxism. However, among his earliest concepts and for which he based his theory of "existentialism" involved the structure and nature of human consciousness, which he eventually attempted to explain in what is considered his masterpiece, "Being or Nothingness." (Onof, 2006) In the text, he discloses that consciousness is always contained within a physical structure. (O'Donohoe) It cannot be free-floating not can it exist after its physical structure ceases to be. This is the point in which he posits that there is no Supreme Being who created man and is the source of all moral values. Since he claims that consciousness exists for only as long as its physical structure, there is no afterlife in which the soul will return to this Supreme Being after death and receive its just rewards. Sartre defended this position of physical finality with varying success throughout his career. Without an object to define itself, consciousness would not be possible It is always positive and transparent, not to be confined within limits of perceptions of what it should be or what it had been or what it is not. The essence of consciousness relies solely on its existence, as it is and simply as is. The appearance of consciousness is at the same time as its essence. There are no hidden meanings or ambiguities. Clearly, this correlates to the identification of what it is not, for if it is a constantly changing process, how can it be defined for what it is Just as an example to further explain his view, think of water changing form from liquid to gas to solid and so on. Consciousness is not the water nor is it the different forms it takes but rather the process from one state to the next. If we follow this reasoning, logically the essence being is continuously in flux, always in the process of becoming not what it had been. Consciousness is not a state of being but an activity, a process of going towards something. It is the activity that defines consciousness, not consciousness in itself. Sarte explains that it is not the end result if there ever will be one that denotes consciousness, nor is it the present state of a being. Rather, consciousness is the constant process that takes place within one's self. In which situation, it is safe to say that based on his concept, consciousness is fluid, and cannot be fixed or placed in a state of inertia. Let us explain further that by a process we do not mean a single procedure repetitively done but an ever-changing process, and always by choice. This is another important concept Sartre maintains throughout his life, that humans are free to choose.  The awareness presents the being with choices at every turn and each choice carries a corresponding consequence.  Ã‚  

Research paper on the wife of his youth Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

On the wife of his youth - Research Paper Example He refers to people of the black race as â€Å"black†, but Liza Jane is ruder in her expressions concerning race. Chesnutt chooses an interesting way for reflection of relations between the social and moral values and their reference to property and show (Bryant, 2000). Liza shows her eternal love and Mr. Ryder reflects his ideas and responsibilities concerning Liza Jane as his original love. Mr. Ryder was not afraid of acknowledging his wife from plantations after years of separation: "Ladies and gentlemen, this is the woman, and I am the man, whose story I have told you. Permit me to introduce to you the wife of my youth", - with these words Mr. Ryder introduced his wife of his youth into the refined and elegant society (Chesnutt). He challenged his world of upper class and he believed only in relations between a man and a woman and he did not mind skin color, but only was pleased by her perfect lips and beauty†¦Mr. Ryder was not scared off by the society and in spite of the fact that he was one of the leaders of the Blue Vein Societies, he demonstrated his neutral attitude to the Africa n Americans (Fienberg, 1999). It is a perfect example of the way a privileged class is presented in a positive light in relation to black-skinned people. Nowadays the problem of racial discrimination still exists, notwithstanding that there has been a lasting struggle with it. He proved that the color of skin did not matter much and even though Mr. Ryder tried to hide his real attitude to black skinned people behind his refined dictionary, Liza Jane helps him to get rid of this mask. This is a story about a brave man and a modest woman: his bravery made him rise above social and racial prejudices and her love and modesty made her accept this man as her original husband, a husband of her youth. Therefore, this story by Chesnutt is very impressive and the modern society can learn many interesting things from complex racial

General Movie Tourism in New York Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

General Movie Tourism in New York - Essay Example New York City has a large number of tourist attractions that serves close to 54 million foreigners as well as American nationals in each year. Some of the major tourist attraction sites include Ellis Island, Empire State Building Metropolitan Museum of Art, Broadway Theatre Productions, Statue of Liberty Rockefeller Center, Times Square, Coney Island, and Barclays Center among others. The tourists also visit the many TV scenes recording places as well as movie centers. Some of the TV shows and movies acted in New York include Taxi Driver, Sex and the City, Friends, Seinfeld among others. Many movie theatres are visited by tourists who consider them as huge attraction sources. However, despite all these major tourist attraction sites and destinations, movie tourism that forms part of them has not been fully exploited. The paper, therefore, seeks to explain how movie tourism can be developed as the leading tourists’ attraction points in the city of New York. This topic is of gre at importance to because it sought to address a key component of the American economy which is tourism. My deep interest in this topic stems from the inner desire to express the role that movie tourism which many people know little about has impacted positively on tourism. Research methods to be used for the purpose of this study include both qualitative and quantitative research methods and a total of 50 people are to be interviewed. I will be able to speak to these people and I am allowed to speak to them.

The Strategic Management Process Essay Example for Free

The Strategic Management Process Essay Introduction Strategic management process can be defined as â€Å"a managerial process that involves matching organizational capabilities to market opportunities† (Stevens, Sherwood, Dunn, Loudon, 2006, p. 15). The process can be either done on a corporate level involving whole companies or divisions or at an individual level involving a single product or service. First, the company’s strategic division analyzes the opportunities in the market and then matches the company’s resources to these opportunities. The major decisions taken by the strategic managers are whether a company is ready to take advantage of the opportunities in the market place, and set a broad plan to achieve it. To ensure that the strategic planning in a company is successful, the top management and line managers need to be closely involved in the process, and not just the strategic planners who facilitate the process. This paper discusses the strategic planning process in general as it applies to a company. The various elements of the process are analyzed first, in addition to the roles of the various managers in the process in the literature review section. The practical aspect of planning, the issues that can arise in various situations are covered next in the analysis. The problems arising from incorrect or incomplete planning process are also discussed in this section. The explosive rate of globalization has affected the strategic management process in a big way, and so has the computerization of business due to the advent of Internet. The affects of these changes on the strategic management process are discussed in the subsequent section. Finally a summary of the paper is given which highlights the main points of the discussion in the previous sections. Strategic Management Process Strategy defined by Armstrong (cited in McCourt, Eldridge, 2003, p. 25), is â€Å"a statement of what the organization wants to become, where it wants to go and, broadly how it means to get there†. Mc Court and Eldridge have also described strategic management as a simple process, and have given the following figure to mention the various components associated with it. Fig: 1 Strategist Management Process (McCourt, Eldridge, 2003, p. 25) According to the figure given above, the strategic management process begins with a mission, which is essentially the intention of a company’s existence and its purpose in general. Companies usually have a well-defined mission statement towards this purpose. The next element i.e. objectives define a company’s specific targets under the scope of the mission. The objectives are usually a set of statements that define the targets of the company. While mission is generic, objectives are specific and in many cases even quantified. The next element of the strategic management process is strategy, which is the broad plan or approach followed to achieve the objectives. The strategy merely defines the role of various departments or level of managers; it is not specific and acts merely as a guideline. Finally the implementation can be a tactical plan or exact roles and responsibilities along with set target dates for achieving a particular objective. Strategic management process hence adds strategic planning and implementation by adding ongoing attention to budgeting, to performance measurement, management and evaluation, and to feedback relationships among these elements (Hutzschenreuter, Kleindienst, 2006, p. 678). Poster and Streib (cited in Peters, Pierre, 2003, p. 40) present a framework for thinking about strategic management as a process. Their framework incorporates seven elements: values, mission and vision; strategic planning; results-oriented budgeting; performance management; strategic measurement; assessment of the internal and external environment; and feedbacks relationships among these elements. The first element in their framework comprises of values, mission and vision which are seen as a central organizing force for the strategic management process. The next stage i.e. strategic planning can be used to help the organizations get their values, mission and vision and to develop strategic initiatives to realize in practice. Result-oriented budgeting helps to organize the resources needed to fulfill the initiatives. Performance management involves strategies and mechanisms for assigning the responsibility for strategic initiatives to specific units and individuals and holding them accountable for results. Strategic measurement involves identification and tracking of valid measures of the organization’s attempts as it to achieve its strategic objectives. The next element as the name suggests analyzes the various pertinent factors in the internal and external environment of the organization, and their corresponding effects on the environment. Finally the element of feedback from the client helps in assessing the process of effective learning, adaptation and leadership (Peters, Pierre, 2003, p. 40). The strategic management process is a complex one and as suggested by Hutzschenreuter, Kleindienst, (2006, p. 677), it is also shaped by the environmental and organizational context. Business strategy development was due to a purely practical requirement’s perspective Post the world war in 1950s, the world for the first time became aware of the business opportunities that existed by considering rest of the world as markets, rather than production places. This brought about a very complex business structure, which became even more complex to manage financially. Thus formal business strategies were first built in 1970s to focus on planned diversification of companies. Hence, corporate planning, which was the norm of the business units till then, shifted to business strategy (Farjoun, 2001, p. 580). Strategy is essentially a deliberate search for a plan of action which will bring competitive advantage and compound it. Any company begins making its strategy by making an analysis of where it is presently, and what resources it has. The next is an analysis of the competition of the company in present market as well as the market where it wishes to expand. The competition in the new market gives an idea about the present competitive advantages of the company. The new markets are as a result of careful analysis of the places where the company would most increase the scope of its advantage.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The theories of building strategy started to emerge soon. However, even in the present day there is no clear cut path for the formulation of strategy especially concerning long-term business development, new products, technologies or investments, because of the ever changing business environment at an ever increasing pace. Theorists have divided strategy itself into three: corporate business and functional strategies. Corporate strategy gives the macro level decisions which companies need to take such as investment in diversification, vertical integration, acquisitions, and new ventures. The allocation of resources to different business units of the organization and divestments are also covered by this strategy. Business strategy is concerned with how the firm competes within a particular industry or market. That is to say the decision of how a company should compete in the market is answered by this strategy. Functional strategies are the elaboration and implementation of business strategies through individual functions such as production, RD, marketing, human resources, and finance. When the concept of strategy emerged, it was an implicit understanding that the senior managers of an organization are able to objectively appraise the enterprise and its environment and formulate a strategy that maximizes the company’s chances of success in an uncertain future. However, all the theories of strategic management agree on one thing that the formulation and implementation of strategy cannot be separated. A well-formulated strategy must take into account the way it would be implemented and through this implementation the strategy is continuously refined and formulated. Types of planning involved in a Strategic Management Process – The strategic management process is an amalgamation of different elements. Planning in any form is one of the most important process elements. Planning involves an assessment of an organizations mission and goals in relation to its external environment and internal capabilities, projected into the future by several years.   Organizations go in for strategic planning when they perceive that they are sensitive to external environment, which by nature is volatile (Alkhafaji, 2003, p. 5). Planning focuses on understanding changing stakeholder needs, technological developments, competitive position, and competitor initiatives. Any decisions taken after considering the long term strategic plan are more realistic and goal-oriented. There are different types of planning involved in a strategic management process which will be discussed in this section: Strategic Planning Strategic planning is the process of developing and analyzing the organizations mission, overall goals, general strategies, and allocating resources. It usually has long-term goal, vision and mission. These are usually prepared by top level management of the company. These strategies are usually prepared for a period of 5 or more years. This time frame, however, is arbitrary and is dependent on the long-range planning capabilities of the company’s executives, based on its resources. It lays a lot of emphasis on the future implications of a present decision, and hence aids in the organization’s adaptation in an ever-changing environment. The factors which influence the strategic planning are external environment, market dynamics over a period of time, financial, operational and process stability of the company. The SWOT (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats) analysis of the company is critically important in the formulation of its strategic plan. After this strategic goals are made to show a path of reaching the vision of the company with its present capabilities (ORegan, Ghobadian, . 2007, p. 12). Tactical Planning Tactical planning is the continuous process of translation of broad and many a times ambiguous strategic plans, into specific goals and plans that are aimed at a specific division of the organization. Hence, it can be said that tactical planning deals with the implementation part of the planning process. It has a shorter time frame than a strategic plane, usually 1-2 years, and is also narrower in scope. The factors influencing tactical planning are the annual budget, project reviews, quality evaluation processes, target turnovers, market dynamics, government policies, consumer needs, available expertise and finally an evaluation of possible alternative solutions Operational Planning Operational planning is the planning done at the lower levels of the organization. It is used to detail specific processes and procedures used in a department. It primarily focuses on the daily routine tasks and is usually made for a short period of time. Operational plan is generally derived from a tactical plan to achieve one or more operational goals. The factors influencing an operational plan hence are the intra-departmental structure of an organization and efficiency of the manager. Another factor is the time-period for which an operational plan is made. Since the operational goal is either a single-time or a repeatable goal, some factors which effect the planning are the policies, reward system, and even the goal itself or the lack of a specific goal. To take care of such factors, the goal setting and planning should be collaborative (ORegan, Ghobadian, . 2007, p. 15).. Contingency Planning – According to Macneil (cited in Mayer and Berkowitz, 2008, p. 151) contingency relationships ensure some within relationship flexibility thus facilitating adjustments when conditions change Regardless of how carefully strategies are formulated, implemented and evaluated, unforeseen events always can make a strategy obsolete. To counter this, organizations should develop contingency plans, as a part of their strategic planning process, in the evaluation stage. Only high-priority planning areas require contingency planning, which should be as simple as possible. The prime factor influencing contingency planning is the degree of volatility of the present environment. That is to say, the frequency and magnitude of occurrence of unforeseen events like strikes, boycotts natural disasters, government instability and even at times arrival of foreign competitors etc. In case if company’s strategic plan is to expand, the above factors apply to the newer environment in question. Also, the possible affect of the present market environmental fluctuations should be taken into consideration while making the contingency plan for newer markets (Sadgrove, 2005, p. 258).                            Strategic Planning Organizations involve in the process of strategic planning in order to respond to the challenges and opportunities presented by marketplace. Strategic planning can be defined as â€Å"a process that describes the direction an organization will pursue within its chosen environment and guides the allocation of resources and efforts† (Peter, Donnelly, 2002, pp. 5). Strategic planning includes all the activities that lead to the development of a clear organizational mission, organizational objectives and appropriate strategies to achieve the objectives of the entire organization. In the strategic planning process the organization gathers information about the changing elements of its environment. The output of the strategic planning process is the development of a strategic plan. In the discussion that follows, a case study is used as a means for understanding the elements mentioned above (Short, Ketchen, Palmer, Hult, 2007, p. 150)). This would give a practical demonstration of how a company translates these theoretical principles for use in their case. Strategic Planning Process – Strategic planning process is concerned with long term broad marketing mix decisions and the implications of these decisions. It is designed to ensure a systematic approach to planning. Hence, the strategic marketing planning process must be consistent with circumstances. The strategic marketing planning process occurs at multiple levels of the organizations and hence the plan represents the implementation of the organizational strategy. This follows the guidelines of the overall strategic planning process. The strategic planning process is considered essential when the increasingly hostile and complex environment where companies operate is considered. It is basically a series of logical steps that have to be worked in order to arrive at a marketing plan (Gilligan, Wilson, 2003, pp. 44). An extension of strategic planning process is the Strategic marketing planning process, which is concerned with the development of strategies that are based on the planning team’s assessment of the market and perceptions of managerial expectations and organizational capability. This process is used by the organization to formulate its strategy provided that it is adapted to the organization and its environment. Strategic marketing planning consists of ten steps: Mission, Corporate Objectives, Marketing audit, SWOT analysis, Assumptions, marketing objectives and Strategy, Estimate expected results, Identify alternative plans, Budget and First year detailed implementation program (Baker, 2003, pp. 91).                                           Management’s function in Strategic Planning Strategic planning involves an assessment of an organizations mission and goals in relation to its external environment and internal capabilities, projected into the future by several years.   Organizations go in for strategic planning when they perceive that they are sensitive to external environment, which by nature is volatile (Alkhafaji, 2003, p. 11). Strategic planning focuses on understanding changing stakeholder needs, technological developments, competitive position, and competitor initiatives. Any decisions taken after considering the long term strategic plan are more realistic and goal-oriented. Organizations should consider strategic planning as an essential management function. Any organization wishing to have long-term growth should infuse a culture of competitive focus throughout all the hierarchical levels.   Hence, every employee in the company, especially the managers compete, with their company’s competitors in their work (ORegan, Ghobadian, . 2007, p. 17).. Roles of various managers in the Strategic Management Process – Planning is a basic function of management which determines the objectives and the course of action required to attain them. Planning is done at every level of management, hence is done by all managers from the highest to lowest in the management hierarchy. Managers in an organization have a primary role in strategy-implementation. Managers use strategic planning as a management function to allocate resources to programmed activities, which is calculated to achieve a set of goals in a dynamic and competitive environment.   Management changes are even more extensive when the strategies to be implemented move a firm into a major new direction. Hence, their inputs while the formulation of a strategic plan becomes extremely important (ORegan, Ghobadian, . 2007, p. 18).. Equally important is the involvement of strategists in the strategy-implementation activities. There are four main types of planning – corporate, strategic, management and operations, each of which is carried out at different management levels, covers a different time-span and has varying levels of short and long-term impact on the working of the organization (Boone, Kurtz, P. 271). Needless to say, the planning activities of various managers at different levels are different. Senior management usually does the corporate and strategic planning activities. Strategic planning details the goals and objectives of the company while corporate planning decides how the organization would operate to achieve these objectives and goals. The resource allocation for achieving the goals is also done during the corporate and strategic planning stage. Strategic planning is usually long term covering about three to five years (Dixon, 2003, p. 29, 30). The plan charts out the path of the organization during the period and the various activities which need to be done for achieving the objectives set. An example of strategic planning is of General Motors and Dell’s business strategy related to their spare parts given in the book by Muckstadt (2005, p. 2) . In Dell’s case, there is no need to maintain an exhaustive inventory regarding its old products sales parts, while this is an important element of General Motor’s strategy. Hence, GM as a part of its business strategy maintains a huge storage space where hundreds of thousands of storage parts are stocked. The location of the storage space must also take into consideration its supply chain partners like either individual car dealers as well as its suppliers, when designing such a strategy. Change is the most certain part in any environment, and business and markets are guided by various factors, which might necessitate a change in strategy. It is the job to the senior managers to ensure that a new strategy ensures sufficient plans for the acceptance of the strategy by people working in the various levels of the organizations. An example is given in the book by Murray and Richardson (2002, p.5) about the Canadian industrial supply company Acklands-Grainger which in less than a span of twelve months moved from a 4% growth rate to a 20% growth rate and higher profitability. The authors mention in their book (p. 24), that within 100 days of launch of a new strategic plan for the company several major steps like a new communications initiative to involve more people in the decision making process, were successfully implemented. This ensured that the employees of the company were by and large impressed by the strategy and were enthusiastic to take part in the strategy. Many people working in the frontline were however skeptical about the strategic change within the company, as they could see little change in their own work areas. To ensure the front-line people, the Strategy team committed to five deliverables at the end of 200 days of the launch of the new strategy to assure its front-line employees that things were really changing. These included specific changes to branch operations, improvements in logistics and improvement in training. Although the delivery of the five tasks was not perfect the outcomes ensured that the employees felt that there was a definite change and had specific development points which they could identify with and discuss. The example above, details how a change in strategy was successfully implemented within a company. It highlights an important point that while a strategy change is being developed by a company, the strategy must be flexible and should include detailed plan for implementation to being about the change from the point of view of the line-employees (Parnell, Lester, 2003, p. 295). Management planning is done by middle level management who divide the task into different smaller units and ensure that proper execution of the task would take place by making a effective integration plan. This planning is of a comparatively shorter time span than the strategic planning and usually lasts for a single project or a set of similar projects. They also cover only a partial division of the organization. Operational planning is done by the line managers and is of a shorter time span than the management planning. It usually refers to the day-to-day planning addressing the specific time-tables, task and measurable targets that managers in each different unit of the project make and maintain to ensure that the task get done in-time. Hence, operational planning deals with developing and implementing tactics in specific functional areas. The managers allocate time and teams consisting of a specific number of employees to perform a particular task (Dixon, 2003, p. 31). Strategic goals are achieved by setting and achieving tactical objectives. Hence, it is very important that the plans at different levels complement each other. Managers at different levels must have proper and effective communications, such that goals at every level are understood as well as the objectives behind these goals. Senior and higher-levels of management must ensure that there information flow s efficient and the line-managers are aware and clear about their roles and responsibilities. The job of the middle managers is to ensure that the objectives are understood by the line managers and proper goals are set to achieve these objectives (Nadkarni, Narayanan, 2007, p. 263). It is often seen that many times the organizations fail to achieve their objectives, despite the fact that the senior management is clear about their vision and strategies and line-management is skilled at their work. The problem in this case lies with the middle management who fail to translate the objectives into tactical goals for the various functional groups (Boone, Kurtz, P. 271). Following figure shows a sample organization chart which gives the level of managers and the strategic business decisions they can take. Fig: 2 Strategic Decisions taken by various Managers (Grant, 2002, p. 24)                      Strategic Leadership and Decision Making As an organization prepares itself for future success, by using its strategic planning, no other internal factor is more critical than the strategy formulation and leadership. For a successful strategy formulation and implementation leadership is a necessary factor. The term leadership encompasses visioning, developing, motivating communicating and involving. The book by Scott (2005) defines the terms as explained by Peter Drucker, who gives three essentials of leadership as â€Å"Defining, communicating, and establishing a sense of mission in a way that is understandable to others; Treating leadership as a responsibility rather than a rank and; Earning and maintaining the trust of others† (p. 108, 109). The book further gives that opinion of Drucker on leadership, who says that it should be based on being ethical and consistent in word and deed rather than being clever and deceiving. Strategic leadership is a newly developed type of leadership and is needed to initiate and direct the strategic management process. Strategic leadership covers five aspects of leadership: technical leadership, human leadership, political leadership, cultural leadership and educational leadership. These aspects contribute directly to environmental analysis, planning and structuring, staffing and directing, implementing, monitoring and evaluating the strategic management process. Strategic leadership can be defined as encapsulating entrepreneurial processes (Slater, Olson, Hult, 2006, p. 1225) Strategic leadership is also seen as a concerned with strategy development and change. Essentially strategic leadership refers to the top management team, and strategic theory has evolved from upper echelons theory. Strategic leadership concerns developing the organization’s vision, mission, strategies, and culture and monitoring progress and changes in the business environment to ensure that strategies are focused. Strategic leadership concerns monitoring how well organizational culture, including values is supporting the organization’s vision and mission (Brower, Fioi, Emrich, 2007, p. 70). It also concerns with the monitoring of human capital and organizational structure and systems. Strategic leaders posses the following capabilities which is the actual difference between managers and leaders also. These are given as below: Visionary/ Strategic – An abstract vision of where the firm might want to be in the future is of limited use without its translation into an executable competitive strategy. Hence, strategic leaders must have both the vision and the means to achieve the vision. Systems Thinker – Strategic leaders create organizational and operating practices that carefully coordinate the interactions and dependencies between different operating areas. Hence, a characteristic of strategic leader is that they can see the connections between individual parts of the firm and its competitive strategy, but do not concern themselves with individual practices or procedures. Effective Motivator/Communicator/Teacher – Strategic leaders can see the firm’s strategy and can see the requisites to deliver the strategy, in addition to being equipped to build the hiring, compensation, and coaching systems in accord with the firm’s competitive strategy. Obsessive – Strategic leadership is not a part-time activity and hence strategic leaders need to be obsessed with the execution of the strategy in each act within the firm. Strategic leaders are driven to align all the activities in the firm with the delivery of the value proposition. (Brower, Fioi, Emrich, 2007, p. 69, 70) It is clear from the above discourse that strategic leaders, more than anything else, need to believe in their strategy. For the success of a strategy, strategic leaders should be prepared to endure short-terms costs and dips in performance, to facilitate making investments for future. These tradeoffs are managed with a commitment to the strategy and there is no major change between different high and low periods, since the focus is on the long-term direction. Despite the fact that strategic leadership is generally concerned with the upper echelons of management, the qualities themselves are not limited to the top management group. This fact must be understood by the senior managers of the firm so as to create an environment, to make sure that these qualities are recognized, expressed and nurtured within all the levels of the organization (Hitt, Ireland, Camp, Sexton, 2001, p. 482) Strategic leadership and decision making – Management is usually concerned with the following functions in some or the other way: Planning, organizing, staffing, and decision making (Parnell, Lester, 2003, p. 298). Decision making is the heart of management. Any function performed by managers at any level of management involves decision making. Managers at all times are faced with a various alternate solutions of a problem, and their task is to choose the most optimum solution from amongst these and implement it. Decision making process consist of: identifying the problem, analyzing the problem, developing alternate solutions, comparing alternate solutions, choosing the best solution and implementing and finally verifying the solution. During the decision making process is where a manager continuously tries to achieve a state of stability by implementing a course of action, while all the time dealing with the possible consequences of his actions. A key competency in strategic leadership is decision making about whether and when to act (Elbanna, Child, 2007, p. 435) Consistency of decision making in accord with the firm’s value proposition is important for a strategic leader. It allows the members of the organization to see the connection between their daily responsibility and the delivery of the firm’s strategy. Strategic leadership hence involves building a coherent set of original beliefs and practices that are aligned with the requirements of the seller’s value proposition. All have responsibilities for their own beliefs and for the performance of their coworkers, and hence strategic leadership is needed for all the levels of the firm. Effects of business environmental changes on strategy   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Theorists and business strategists consider the most important recent trends in the macro environment as the forces the new economy. The new economic era started at the advent of the 21st century, but the factors which led to the change had already been felt and observed at least two decades back. The new information and communication technologies restructured the global markets, and whole industry sectors, by challenging the conventional economic thinking and hence redefining how business is done. The New Economy is almost a revolution in the way business works, economic wealth is generated, so cities are organized and individual exist within them (Grant ¸2003, p. 504). The figure below shows the key features of new economic environment that impact on business strategy, as compared to the key features of old economic environment. Old Economy New Economy Key industries Oil, Mining, Steel, Vehicles, Railways, Shipping Computers and Software, biotechnology, personal and financial services, Entertainment Key Resources Energy, Labor Information Knowledge and Talent Technology Power Trains, Machine Tools Information Technology Product Life Cycles Measured in decades Measured in Years or months Trade Patterns International Global Working Day 8 hours 24 Hours Communication Media Letters, Telephone, Fax Mobile devices, E-mail, Internet and Intranet Organization Structures Centralized Hierarchical, Functional Devolved, Flat, Functional Workforce Characteristics Mainly male semi-skilled or skilled No gender bias, high proportion of graduates    Fig -3 Key features of old and new business environments (Sadler, Ryall, Craig, 2003, p. 29) Key elements that have effected the environment to bring these changes are: Globalization: The globalization as we know it has happened in two stages. The first stage was post world war, when other countries came to be seen as new markets rather than colonial acquisitions. This brought about a change in the business organization. The second phase was in the late 1980s, when the internet emerged to be a n option where people could display their wares or even sell them, for instance in case of paid music downloads. Presently globalization is not only an advantage; it has become a must for any company wishing to enter the business domain (Pitt, 2005, p. 316). Small-World with reduced distances – The world as we know it is getting smaller everyday with the emergence of new technologies in wireless communication. People can now communicate visually and effectively with anyone across anywhere in the world at the same time. This has brought about a lot of new requirements which were heretofore quite unknown Knowledge Economy – A bye-product of the shrinking world is the awareness people have about other cultures and economic conditions in various parts of the world. The awareness of the new technologies is also increasing among people at a rapid pace, and is no longer confined within a select few number of people. Impact of new technology – People in the present day world are so used to rapid changes in technology that they almost expect smarter, cheaper and better performance devices almost every day. Hence, the importance of RD among the various industries has increased and is no longer an option but a necessity. (Pitt, McAulay, Sims, 2002, p. 159, 160) In the light of these discontinuous, large-scale changes facing the world, organizations might be required to undergo major, strategic reorientations.   These reorientations may involve changes in products, services, markets, organizational structure and human resources. A change can be viewed either a technical problem, political problem, or a cultural problem. However, strategic change views the problem as a varied amalgamation of all the three problems. Strategic change refers to the non-routine, non-incremental, and discontinuous change that alters the overall orientation of the organization, and/or the components of the organization. (Hà ¥konsson, Obei, Burton, 2008, p. 65)   However, the exact boundary between a strategic and a non-strategic change is blurred. Sometimes it depends on the magnitude of change and at other times the time frame of the impact of the change is in question. Conclusion The paper gave a general discourse on strategic management processes. The process consists of various elements, and each of which is equally important to the process. The planning stage is the most critical out of these processes, which was described in the next section along with different types of planning. The nature of strategic planning was discussed in detail which also covered the strategic planning process. The subsequent section discoursed upon the role of various strategic managers on strategy building. After this the discussion shifted to strategic leadership and the power of decision making. Finally the effects of business environmental changes on strategy making was discussed, which gave the critical factors involved in strategic decision making in the present day world. A comparison of this was done with the economy just a decade or two past, and can be seen that there are few if any common factors between the two economies. Hence, the strategy making process has undergone a massive change in the recent times. Till then the strategy formulation process was an evolutionary one, with one element being added over another. But the present day world calls for revolutionary strategies since the success factors too have undergone changes. The paper hence gives an idea about the direction companies of the present day world need to take in order to be successful. While the topics covered are generic, and do not give a situation-level analysis for the choice of a strategy, there is enough information here to help strategic theorists understand the dynamics of the business environment and act accordingly.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   References Journal Articles Brower HH, Fioi CM, Emrich CC, (2007), â€Å"The language of Leaders†, Journal of Leadership Studies, Pages 67-80, Wiley Periodicals Inc, 20th November 2007, Volume 1, Issue 3, DOI 10.1002/jls.20026 Elbanna S, Child J, (2007), â€Å"Influence of Strategic Decision Effectiveness: Development and Test of an Integrative Model†, Strategic Management Journal, Strat. Mgmt. 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